1889 – 1910 Gowongo Mohawk

Between the War of 1812 and the Civil War, manifest destiny became the ideology that brought US imperialism to the forefront. Manifest destiny was the territorial expansion of North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In effect, it was a total disregard for the territorial rights of the American Indian people that wiped out many tribes and caused a great cultural divide. The belief that the expansion of the United States was divinely ordained justified this egregious behavior. With the expansion of the new-found frontier, opportunities and possibilities abounded for the growing population of white Americans. For those left behind on the East Coast, there was a growing fascination with the wild west.

The wild west was portrayed through the lens of white men’s experiences most notably showman Buffalo Bill Cody and historian Frederick Jackson Turner.
Audiences throughout North America were captivated by seeing American Indians up close and personal in traveling shows. In their reenactments of the violent conquest of the untamed frontier, Buffalo Bill Cody’s shows portrayed the American Indian people as wild, uncivilized savages and violent aggressors. Turner on the other hand told the story of a peaceful occupation of an empty land that was free for the taking. Nowhere in either of their interpretations or experiences of the expansion of North America did audiences or readers encounter the authentic American Indian experience.

The American theatre promoted the wildly popular frontier play which not only fed the public’s fascination with the wild west but reinforced problematic stereotypes. When Carrie decided to take control of her career, she wrote, directed and starred in her own theatrical productions where she chose to play the leading male roles christening her American Indian name Gowongo Mohawk. Not only did she confront American Indian stereotypes but gender roles as well by portraying male characters. In 1888, she wrote the play “Wep-Ton-No-Mah: The Indian Mail Carrier”, which was a five act melodrama set in the west. The play was action packed and included trained horses
and knife fights.The first production was in February 1889 held at the Standard Museum in New York City as recorded in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. Unfortunately, the reviews were not favorable making the outrageous claim of inauthenticity as Gowongo was tall, thin, without an accent and light skinned rather than their image of American Indians as short and pudgy.(5) Undaunted Gowongo continued and caught the attention of the public as her play was one of the first to showcase and star a Native American performer. In the play’s program, she was billed as “The Only Indian Actress, in her great sensational and thrilling picture of frontier life”.(6)

From 1892 to 1897, Gowongo toured Europe performing her play to enthusiastic audiences eager to witness the myth of North America’s wild west. Upon her return she continued to tour throughout the U.S. and perform to full houses. Because of her theatrical success, she was able to expressly portray American Indians in a favorable way which made her a formidable activist for American Indian rights.

In 1900, Gowongo again starred in the leading male role in Lincoln Carter’s play “The Flaming Arrow”.(7) Similar to her own play, this play was also a five act melodrama set in the west, and she played an American Indian man in the leading role. Her character, White Eagle, competed for the attention of Mary, the daughter of the fort’s commander. White Eagle triumphed over the two male villainous characters to gain favor with Mary which entertained the notion of a same-sex and interracial relationship. Needless to say, Gowongo broke down many barriers in her theatrical performances. Her popularity soared and even a song entitled “Ga-Wan-Go Mohawk: Intermezzo in Two-step” was written in her honor.(8)

She died on February 7, 1924 and was laid to rest in Edgewater Cemetery in Edgewater, Bergen County, New Jersey. Her family home still stands as a historical monument in Greene, New York.(9)